Leadership Theories in Practice
Leadership Theories in Practice
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Theory Box: Leadership Theories PAGE 9!! Theory/Contributor Key Idea Application to Practice Leaders have a certain set of physical and emotional characteristics that are crucial for inspiring others toward a common goal. Some theorists believe that traits are innate and cannot be learned; others believe that leadership traits can be developed in each individual. Self-awareness of traits is useful in self-development ( developing assertiveness) an in seeking employment that matches traits (drive, motivation, integrity, confidence, cognitive ability and task knowledge). Style theories focus on what leaders do in relational and contextual terms. The achievement of satisfactory performance measures requires supervisors to pursue effective relationships with their subordinates while comprehending the factors in the work environment that influence outcomes. To understand “style,” leade need to obtain feedback from followers, superiors, and pe such as through the Manage Grid Instrument developed by Blake and Mouton (198 Employee-centered leaders to be the leaders most able t achieve effective work environments and productiv Three factors are critical: (1) the degree of trust and respect between leaders and followers, (2) the task structure denoting the clarity of goals and the complexity of problems faced, and (3) the position power in terms of where the leader was able to reward followers and exert influence. Consequently, leaders were viewed as able to adapt their style according to the presenting situation. The Vroom-Yetton model was a problem-solving approach to leadership. Path-Goal theory recognized two contingent variables: (1) the personal characteristics of followers and (2) environmental demands. On the basis of these factors, the leader sets forth clear expectations, eliminates obstacles to goal achievements, motivates and rewards staff, The most important implications for leaders are these theories consider the challenge of a situation and encourage an adaptive leadership style to complem the issue being faced. In oth words, nurses must assess e situation and determine appropriate action based on people involved. Trait Theories Trait theories were first studied from 1900 to 1950. These theories are sometimes referred to as the Great Man theory, from Aristotle’s philosophy extolling the virtue of being “born” with leadership traits. Stogdill (1948)is usually credited as the pioneer in this school of thought. Style Theories Sometimes referred to as group and exchange theories of leadership, style theories were derived in the mid-1950s because of the limitations of trait theory. The key contributors to this renowned research were Shartle (1956), Stogdill (1963), and Likert (1987). Situational-Contingency Theories The situational-contingency theorists emerged in the 1960s and early 1970s to mid-1970s. These theorists believed that leadership effectiveness depends on the relationship among (1) the leader’s task at hand, (2) his or her interpersonal skills, and (3) the favorableness of the work situation. Examples of theory development with this expanded perspective include Fiedler’s (1967) Contingency Model, Vroom and Yetton’s (1973)Normative Decision-Making Model, and House and Mitchell’s (1974) Path-Goal theory. Theory/Contributor Key Idea Application to Practice and increases opportunities for follower satisfaction based on effective job performance. PAGE 10!! Transformational Theories… Transformational theories arose late in the past millennium when globalization and other factors caused organizations to fundamentally re-establish themselves. Many of these attempts were failures, but great attention was given to those leaders who effectively transformed structures, human resources, and profitability balanced with quality. Bass (1990), Bennis and Nanus (2007), and Tichy and Devanna (1997) are commonly associated with the study of transformational theory. Transformational leadership refers to a process whereby the leader attends to the needs and motives of followers so that the interaction raises each to high levels of motivation and morality. The leader is a role model who inspires followers through displayed optimism, provides intellectual stimulation, and encourages follower creativity. Transformed organizations responsive to customer need are morally and ethically int promote employee development, and encourage self-management. Nurse lea with transformational characteristics experiment w systems redesign, empower staff, create enthusiasm for practice, and promote scholarship of practice at th patient-side. Maslow is credited with developing People are motivated by a hierarchy of a theory of motivation, first human needs, beginning with physiologic published in 1943. needs and then progressing to safety, social, esteem, and self-actualizing needs. In this theory, when the need for food, water, air, and other life-sustaining elements is met, the human spirit reaches out to achieve affiliation with others, which promotes the development of self-esteem, competence, achievement, and creativity. Lower-level needs will always drive behavior before higher-level needs will be addressed. When this theory is applied staff, leaders must be aware the need for safety and secu will override the opportunit be creative and inventive, su as in promoting job change. Hierarchy of Needs Two-Factor Theory Herzberg (1991) is credited with Hygiene factors, such as working developing a two-factor theory of conditions, salary, status, and security, motivation, first published in 1968. motivate workers by meeting safety and security needs and avoiding job dissatisfaction. Motivator factors, such as achievement, recognition, and the Organizations need both hygiene and motivator facto to recruit and retain staff. Hygiene factors do not crea job satisfaction; they simply must be in place for work to Theory/Contributor Key Idea Application to Practice satisfaction of the work itself, promote job enrichment by creating job satisfaction. accomplished. If not, these factors will only serve to dissatisfy staff. Transformational leaders us motivator factors liberally to inspire work performance. Individuals’ perceived needs influence their behavior. In the work setting, this motivated behavior is increased if a person perceives a positive relationship between effort and performance. Motivated behavior is further increased if a positive relationship exists between good performance and outcomes or rewards, particularly when these are valued. Expectancy is the perceived probability of satisfying a particular need based on experience. Therefore nurse leadership roles need to pro specific feedback about pos performance. Expectancy Theory Vroom (1994) is credited with developing the expectancy theory of motivation. PAGE 11!! OB Modification…. Luthans (2011) is credited with establishing the foundation for Organizational Behavior Modification (OB Mod), based on Skinner’s work on operant conditioning. OB Mod is an operant approach to organizational behavior. OB Mod Performance Analysis follows a threestep ABC Model: A,antecedent analysis of clear expectations and baseline data collection; B, behavioral analysis and determination; and C,consequence analysis, including reinforcement strategies. The leader uses positive reinforcement to motivate followers to repeat construc behaviors in the workplace. Negative events that demotivate staff are negatively reinforced, and the staff is motivated to avoid certain situations that cause discom Extinction is the purposeful non-reinforcement (ignoring negative behaviors. Punishm is used sparingly because th results are unpredictable in supporting the desired behavioral outcome. in nursing terms, professional nurses can care for individual patients repeatedly, whereas each patient is a unique challenge. But with time and perspective, patterns emerge and nurses learn that these patterns lead to ways to control pain, engage family members in care at the end-of-life, and address a host of other issues. As healthcare providers are very focused on problems and predictable solutions, it is possible that reframing care to build on an individual, family, or community strengths presents quite a different perspective that unleashes solutions to complex problems and shifts human energy toward a positive outcome. Therefore complexity science expands the repertoire of nursing actions to include strategies that are multidimensional and with a different patient or organizational view. In adaptive leadership, consistent with the definition of leadership provided earlier, the goal in responding to patient and organizational problems is to examine a problem through a different lens. This view might examine the “whole” that includes potential threats, exposes conflict, or challenges norms as part of the art of improvising change. An adaptive leader understands that systems are ecological—they restore themselves—and that change can happen equally from the bottom up or from the top down. One leads by entering the stream, not observing it and sitting off to the side to critique it. Questioning, observing patterns, and generating new patterns through being involved is how change unfolds. Imagine the power of social networking where no top-down leader exists. Rather, a series of powerful interactions and messages constantly shift to first re-create reality and then major social change. Adaptive leaders appreciate that they have influence and can help shape direction, with no sense that absolute control is either necessary or possible. In complexity theory, traditional organizational hierarchy plays a less significant role as the “keeper of high-level knowledge.” It is replaced with decision making distributed among the human assets within an organization without regard to hierarchy. Less time is spent trying to control the future (which is not predictable anyway), and more time is spent moving toward and into energy while influencing, innovating, and responding to the many factors that are influencing health care. In complexity science, every voice counts and every encounter with patients and families emerge to co-create a desired outcome. Change is an important dimension of leadership. Eoyang and Holladay (2013) contrast three kinds of change, using performance appraisal as an example. The same example is used here, as each professional nurse is subject to an appraisal of performance. The first example is static change. A performance appraisal in this model is one where an annual overview of performance is described, with comparison to the performance of the previous year, against a set of defined goals and objectives. The second model is the dynamic change model. It is illustrated in the Research Perspective on p. 12. Contrary to the static model, this approach yields periodic feedback, enough that (Yoder-Wise 9-11) Yoder-Wise, Patricia. Leading and Managing in Nursing, 6th Edition. Mosby, 102014. VitalBook file. Table 1-1 Gardner’s Tasks of Leading/Managing Applied to Practice, Management, and Executive Positions Page 14 Behaviors Gardner’s Clinical Task Position Management Executive Position Position Envisioning Visioning goals patient outcomes for single patient/families; assisting patients in formulating their vision of future wellbeing Visioning patient outcomes for aggregates of patient populations and creating a vision of how systems support patient care objectives; assisting staff in formulating their vision of enhanced clinical and organizational performance Visioning community health and organizational outcomes for aggregates of patient populations to which the organization can respond Affirming values Assisting the staff in interpreting organizational values and strengthening staff members’ personal values to more closely align with those of the organization; interpreting values during organizational change Assisting other organizational leaders in the expression of community and organizational values; interpreting values to the community and staff Assisting the patient/family to sort out and articulate personal values in relation to health problems and the effect of these problems on lifestyle adjustments Behaviors Gardner’s Clinical Task Position Management Executive Position Position Motivating Relating to and inspiring patients/families to achieve their vision Relating to and inspiring staff to achieve the mission of the organization and the vision associated with organizational enhancement Relating to and inspiring management, staff, and community leaders to achieve desired levels of health and well-being and appropriate use of clinical services Managing Assisting the patient/family with planning, priority setting, and decision making; ensuring that organizational systems work in the patient’s behalf Assisting the staff with planning, priority setting, and decision making; ensuring that systems work to enhance the staff’s ability to meet patient care needs and the objectives of the organization Assisting other executives and corporate leaders with planning, priority setting, and decision making; ensuring that human and material resources are available to meet health needs Achieving workable unity Assisting patients/families to achieve optimal functioning to benefit the transition to enhanced health functions Assisting staff to achieve optimal functioning to benefit transition to enhanced organizational functions Assisting multidisciplinary leaders to achieve optimal functioning to benefit patient care delivery and collaborative care Sharing organizational information openly; being honest in role performance Representing nursing and executive views openly and honestly; being Developing Keeping trust promises to patients and families; being honest in role performance Behaviors Gardner’s Clinical Task Position Management Executive Position Position honest in role performance Explaining Teaching and interpreting information to promote patient/family functioning and well-being Teaching and interpreting information to promote organizational functioning and enhanced services Teaching and interpreting organizational and communitybased health information to promote organizational functioning and service development (Yoder-Wise 14-15) Yoder-Wise, Patricia. Leading and Managing in Nursing, 6th Edition. Mosby, 102014. VitalBook file. PAGE 15 Serving as symbol Representing the nursing profession and the values and beliefs of the organization to patients/families and other community groups Representing the nursing unit service and the values and beliefs of the organization to staff, other departments, professional disciplines, and the community at large Representing the values and beliefs of the organization and patient care services to internal and external constituents 1Representing Representing Representing Representing the group nursing and the nursing and the unit in task the organization Renewing forces, total quality initiatives, shared governance councils, and other groups organization on assigned boards, councils, committees, and task forces, both internal and external to the organization and patient care services on assigned boards, councils, committees, and task forces, both internal and external to the organization Providing selfcare to enhance the ability to care for staff, patients, families, and the organization served Providing self-care to enhance the ability to care for staff, patients, families, and the organization served Providing self-care to enhance the ability to care for patients, families, staff, and the organization served engage with others to assess the current reality, determine and specify a desired end-point state, and then strategize to reduce the difference. When this is done well, the nurse and the patient or nurses within an organization experience creative tension. Creative tension inspires the patient and others to work in concert to achieve a desired goal. Shared visioning gives direction to accelerate change. Affirming Values Values are the connecting thoughts and inner driving forces that give purpose, direction, and precedence to life priorities. An organization, through its members, shares collective values that are expressed through its mission, philosophy, and practices. Leaders influence decision making and priority setting as an expression of their values. People (either patients or peers being influenced by the leader) also use their values to achieve their goals, which are then manifested through behavior. The word value connotes something of worth; intentional actions reflect our values. A leader continuously clarifies and acknowledges the values that draw attention to a problem and the resources in human and material terms to solve it. Values are powerful forces that promote acceptance of change and drive achievement toward a goal. Motivating When values drive our actions, they become a source of motivation. Motivation energizes what we value, personally and professionally, and stimulates growth and movement toward the vision. Motivators are the reinforcers that keep positive actions alive and sustained, fueling the desire to engage in change. Theories of motivation identify and describe the forces that motivate people. Examples of motivation theory are presented in the Theory Box on Motivation on pp. 9–11. Managing The ability to manage is an important aspect of organizational functioning, because management requires determining routines and practices that offer structure and stability to others. This is especially true in certain positions of influence within a clinical setting, such as a nurse manager, clinical nurse specialist, or clinical nurse leader, all of whom share responsibility for creating effective structures that support clinical and organizational outcomes. Being effective as a manager requires behaviors different from those associated with effective leadership, and vice versa. Ideally, those charged with managing are good leaders and followers, because no organizational position is limited to one exclusive set of behaviors over another. Good leaders need management skills and abilities, and good managers need leading skills and abilities, and good followers need both skills too. (Yoder-Wise 15-16) Yoder-Wise, Patricia. Leading and Managing in Nursing, 6th Edition. Mosby, 102014. VitalBook file. Leadership Theories in Practice NSG/451 Version 2 Leadership Theories in Practice Review the leadership theories on pages 9-11 and Gardner’s Tasks of Leading/Managing on pages 14-15 in Leading and Managing in Nursing. Complete the table below: • • • Summarize the main points of the theory in your own words in the Summary Definition column. Provide an example where you witnessed the theory in practice or suggest a situation where it could be applicable in the Practice Example column. Do not restate the Application to Practice column in the textbook; provide a unique example or suggest a possible scenario. Correlate at least one of Gardner’s task to the theory and practice example in the last column. Use at least five in-text citations in the table to support your summaries, practice examples, or application of Gardner’s Tasks. In the References section below the table, create an APA-formatted list to cite each resource. Theory Name Summary Definition Practice Example Trait Theories Style Theories SituationalContingency Theories Transformational Theories Hierarchy of Needs Two-Factor Theory Expectancy Theory Copyright © 2016, 2018 by University of Phoenix. All rights reserved. Application of Gardner’s Tasks 1 Leadership Theories in Practice NSG/451 Version 2 Organizational Behavior Modification References Copyright © 2016, 2018 by University of Phoenix. All rights reserved. 2
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